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The tubular maximum is the maximum rate at which a substance can be actively reabsorbed (figure 26 gastritis cystica profunda order clarithromycin 250 mg with mastercard. Each substance that is reabsorbed has its own tubular maximum, determined by the number of active transport carrier proteins and the rate at which they are able to transport molecules of the substance. For example, in people who have diabetes mellitus, the tubular load for glucose can exceed the tubular maximum by a substantial amount, thus allowing glucose to appear in the urine. Urine volume is also greater than normal because the glucose molecules in the filtrate increase the osmolality of the filtrate in the tubule and reduce the effectiveness of water reabsorption by osmosis. Compare that with the effect of chronic renal failure on the tendency for the blood K+ level to be higher than normal and the blood Na+ level to be lower than normal. The epithelium itself ranges from four or five cells thick when the urinary bladder is empty to two or three cells thick when it is distended. Transitional epithelium is specialized, so that the cells slide past one another, and the number of cell layers decreases as the volume of the urinary bladder increases. Where the urethra exits the urinary bladder, elastic connective tissue and smooth muscle keep urine from flowing out of the urinary bladder until the pressure in the urinary bladder is great enough to force urine to flow from it. In males, the elastic tissue and smooth muscle form an internal urinary sphincter. In males, the internal urinary sphincter contracts to keep semen from entering the urinary bladder during sexual intercourse (see chapter 28). The external urinary sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle that surrounds the urethra as the urethra extends through the pelvic floor. This sphincter acts as a valve that controls the flow of urine through the urethra. In males, the urethra extends to the end of the penis, where it opens to the outside (see chapter 28). The urethra is much shorter in females than in males, and it opens into the vestibule anterior to the vaginal opening. Anatomy and Histology of the Ureters and Urinary Bladder the ureters are tubes through which urine flows from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The ureters extend inferiorly and medially from the renal pelvis and exit the kidney at the renal hilum. The ureters descend through the abdominal cavity and enter the urinary bladder (figure 26. The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular container that lies in the pelvic cavity just posterior to the symphysis pubis. In males, the urinary bladder is just anterior to the rectum; in females, it is just anterior to the vagina and inferior and anterior to the uterus. Its volume increases and decreases, depending on how much or how little urine is stored in it. The urethra, which transports urine to the outside of the body, exits the urinary bladder inferiorly and anteriorly (figure 26. The rest of the walls of these structures consists of a lamina propria, a muscular coat, and a fibrous adventitia (figure 26.
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Each lobe has a single lactiferous Bulbospongiosus (lak-tifer-s; milk-producing) duct gastritis diet ùä÷ clarithromycin 500 mg buy, which muscle opens independently of other lactiferous Clinical perineum Levator ani muscle ducts on the surface of the nipple. Just deep to the surface, each lactiferous duct enlarges External anal to form a small, spindle-shaped lactiferous sphincter sinus. In lactating females, milk accumuAnus lates in the lactiferous sinuses during milk Gluteus maximus muscle letdown. The lactiferous duct supplying a lobe subdivides to form smaller ducts, each Coccyx of which supplies a lobule. In milk-producing, or lactating, mammary glands, the ends of these small ducts expand to form secretory sacs called alveoli. Perineum Similar to the male perineum, the female perineum is divided into two triangles by the superficial and deep transverse perineal muscles (figure 28. The anterior urogenital triangle contains the external genitalia, and the posterior anal triangle contains the anal opening. To prevent such tearing, an incision called an episiotomy (e-piz-ot-m, e-pis-ot-m) is sometimes made in the clinical perineum. Alternatively, allowing the perineum to stretch slowly during delivery may prevent tearing, thereby making an episiotomy unnecessary. Surrounding the alveoli are myoepithelial cells, which can contract, causing the milk to move out of the alveoli. Myoepithelial cells surround the alveoli and contract to expel milk (see chapter 29). A group of suspensory ligaments, or Cooper ligaments, support and hold the breasts in place. These ligaments extend from the fascia over the pectoralis major muscles to the skin over the mammary glands and prevent the breasts from excessive sagging. The nipples are very sensitive to tactile stimulation and contain smooth muscle cells that contract, causing the nipple to become erect in response to stimulation. These smooth muscle cells respond to stimuli such as touch, cold, and sexual arousal. Trace the route taken by a drop of milk from its site of production to the outside of the body. Breast pain sometimes occurs, especially during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and continuing until menstruation. These changes occur in approximately 10% of women who are less than 21 years of age, 25% of women in their reproductive years, and 50% of women who are postmenopausal. Some evidence suggests that women with certain types of duct hyperplasia, along with a family history of breast cancer, have an increased likelihood of developing breast cancer. Greater than 75% of the breast cancer cases occur in women older than 50 years of age, and 85% involve cancer of the epithelium of the mammary gland ducts (ductal carcinoma).
For the sympathetic division gastritis diet xtreme clarithromycin 250 mg purchase fast delivery, brain control of sympathetic neurons is lost below the site of the injury. This recovery is particularly important for reflexes involving urination and defecation. Autonomic reflexes mediated through the vagus nerves or the enteric nervous system are not affected by spinal cord injury. S the enteric nervous system is involved with both autonomic reflexes and local reflexes that regulate the activity of the digestive tract. These sensory neurons send action potentials through the enteric plexuses to motor neurons, causing smooth muscle to contract or relax. Describe the autonomic reflex that maintains blood pressure by altering the heart rate or the diameter of blood vessels. Predict 6 Important sensory receptors that monitor blood pressure are located in arteries in the chest above the heart and in arteries in the head. When Sarah does a headstand, gravity causes the blood in her arteries to flow toward her head, and the blood pressure in the arteries of her chest and head increases. When Sarah crouches for a short time and then stands up rapidly, gravity causes the blood in her arteries to flow away from her neck and head and toward her feet, and the blood pressure in the arteries of her chest and head decreases. How do the sympathetic reflexes that control blood vessels respond when Sarah does a headstand, and how do the sympathetic reflexes that control blood vessels respond if Sarah suddenly stands up after crouching for a short time For example, the parasympathetic division stimulates contraction of the urinary bladder, causing urination, but inhibits the heart, causing a decrease in heart rate. The sympathetic division stimulates smooth muscle contraction in blood vessel walls, causing vasoconstriction, but inhibits smooth muscle contractions in the lungs, causing dilation of lung air passageways. When a single structure is innervated by both autonomic divisions, the two divisions usually produce opposite effects on the structure. In the gastrointestinal tract, for example, parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion from glands, whereas sympathetic stimulation decreases secretion. However, in a few instances the effect of the two divisions is not clearly opposite. For example, the parasympathetic division stimulates the pancreas to release digestive enzymes into the small intestine and stimulates contractions of the small intestine to mix the digestive enzymes with the food. In the male, the parasympathetic division initiates erection of the penis, whereas the sympathetic division stimulates the release of secretions from male reproductive glands and helps initiate ejaculation. The sympathetic division has a more general effect than the parasympathetic division because activation of the sympathetic division often causes secretion of both epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla. These hormones circulate in the blood and stimulate effectors throughout the body. Because circulating epinephrine and norepinephrine can persist for a few minutes before being broken down, they can also produce an effect for a longer time than the direct stimulation of effectors by postganglionic sympathetic axons.
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Tom, 26 years: The oocytes are then incubated in a dish and maintained at body temperature for 6 hours, when sperm cells are added to the dish. This causes an increase in the interstitial colloid osmotic pressure, which causes a net increase in the amount of fluid moving from capillaries into interstitial spaces. Certain potassium-sparing diuretics act on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts to reduce the exchange between Na+ and K+.
Gnar, 55 years: This method is 98% effective as long as the baby is exclusively and frequently breastfed and the mother has not resumed menstruation. Melanocytes produce melanin, which protects underlying tissue from ultraviolet radiation. Atrial pressure continues to increase gradually as blood flows from the veins into the relaxed atria.
Kayor, 41 years: T3 and T4 have a negativefeedback effect on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland. The subdural hematoma is likely to be over the medial portion of the left side of the cerebral hemisphere in the area of the premotor cortex and expanding to the area of the primary motor cortex. Aorta All arteries of the systemic circulation are derived either directly or indirectly from the aorta (-rt), which is usually divided into three general parts: (1) the ascending aorta, (2) the aortic arch, and (3) the descending aorta.
Vibald, 44 years: Gases enter and exit the red blood cells most often when the cells are in small blood vessels called capillaries. The remaining cases are often due to a combination of factors, none of which are well understood. For example, if phospholipids and proteins normally found in membranes are in the secretion, the secretion is a holocrine secretion.
Sebastian, 46 years: Anticoagulants (ant-k-ag-lantz) prevent clot formation in people who have damaged heart valves or blood vessels or in those who have had a myocardial infarction. Both the thin and thick segments are impermeable to water, but solutes diffuse out of the thin segment, and Na+, Cl-, and K+ are symported from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid in the thick segments (figure 26. These arteries are (1) the brachiocephalic artery, (2) the left common carotid artery, and (3) the left subclavian artery.
Brenton, 52 years: The condition is usually diagnosed when patients are between 30 and 50 years of age. Coronary bypass is a surgical procedure that relieves the effects of obstructed coronary arteries. It is initiated by the entrance of acidic chyme into the duodenum of the small intestine, which activates both neural and hormonal mechanisms.
Hjalte, 29 years: The sweet, or acetone, breath is derived from the fact that, when starved from glucose, cells begin to catalyze lipids, and the by-products of this metabolism are acetone and other molecules chemically related to acetone. Due to the decreased metabolic rate, the tissues do not require as much oxygen as normal and are less likely to be damaged. The muscularis consists of an inner layer of circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle.
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