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Chemotherapeutic agents have a spectrum of action and may be classed as either narrow-spectrum drugs or broad-spectrum drugs diabetes medications januvia 500 mg metformin purchase with amex, depending on how many kinds of pathogens they affect. Diffusion susceptibility tests, such as the Kirby-Bauer test, reveal which drug is most effective against a particular pathogen; in general, the larger the zone of inhibition around a drugsoaked disk on a Petri plate, the more effective the drug. In choosing antimicrobials, physicians must consider effectiveness, how a drug is best administered-orally, intramuscularly, or intravenously-and possible side effects, including toxicity and allergic responses. Clinicians use the term therapeutic window to indicate the range of concentrations of a drug that are effective without being excessively toxic. Cross resistance occurs when resistance to one chemotherapeutic agent confers resistance to similar drugs. Multiple-drug-resistant pathogens are resistant to three or more types of antimicrobial drugs. Synergism describes the interplay between drugs that results in efficacy that exceeds the efficacy of either drug alone. Diffusion and dilution tests that expose pathogens to antimicrobials are designed to determine. In a Kirby-Bauer susceptibility test, the presence of a zone of inhibition around disks containing antimicrobial agents indicates. Which of the following statements is relevant in explaining why sulfonamides are effective Sulfonamides attach to sterol lipids in the pathogen, disrupt the membranes, and lyse the cells. Macrolide drugs block attachment sites on the host cell wall and prevent viruses from entering. Drugs containing protease inhibitors retard viral growth by blocking the production of essential viral proteins. Draw an oval to predict the size and shape of the zone of inhibition if the drug concentration on the strip were increased twofold. Label each figure below to indicate the class of drug that is stopping polypeptide translation. Given that both human cells and pathogens synthesize proteins at ribosomal sites, how can antimicrobial agents that target this process be safe to use in humans Support or refute the following statement: Antimicrobial agents make cells become resistant. Given that resistant strains of pathogens are a concern to the general health of a population, what can be done to prevent their development What is the difference in drug action of synergists contrasted with that of antagonists
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Chickenpox virus can become latent within sensory nerves and may remain dormant for years diabetes mellitus signs of hypoglycemia order 500 mg metformin mastercard. Stress, aging, or immune suppression reactivates the viruses in 1520% of individuals who have had chickenpox. Reactivated viruses travel down the nerve they inhabit and produce an extremely painful skin rash near the end of the nerve. This rash, known as shingles or herpes zoster, forms in the band of skin associated with the nerve or in the eye. Shingles lesions are accompanied by a burning sensation, numbness, itchiness, or intense pain. After the scabs of shingles fall off, most people have no further skin manifestations, though the pain associated with shingles may remain for months or years after the lesions have healed. Some patients report that the pain is so intense they cannot wear clothing over the affected area for months or years. After two weeks, a second wave of viruses spreads via the blood throughout the body and to the skin. In the dermis, infected cells develop the characteristic rash, which is associated with fever and malaise. Viruses are shed before and during the symptoms through respiratory droplets and the fluid in lesions; dry crusts are not infective. Usually the disease is mild, but it may rarely be fatal, especially if associated with secondary bacterial infections. The virus becomes latent in nerve ganglia and can reactivate in adults, usually after age 45. Reactivated virus travels down the nerve to manifest the lesions of shingles in the band of skin innervated by the infected nerve. The causative virus may become dormant and then years later reactivate to cause shingles. Signs and Symptoms Chickenpox, which is medically termed varicella, is a highly infectious disease. About two to three weeks after infection with chickenpox virus, the patient develops a slight fever and characteristic skin lesions on the back and trunk that then spread to the face, neck, and limbs. Chickenpox lesions begin as macules, progress in one to two days to papules, and finally become thin-walled, fluid-filled vesicles on red bases, which have been called "teardrops on rose petals. Successive crops of lesions appear over a three- to five-day Epidemiology Chickenpox is most often seen in children. Before immunization became routine, about 90% of children developed chickenpox acquired through the respiratory route or by the introduction of viruses from vesicles into skin breaks.
This not only com promises the efficiency of the treatment diabetes type 1 and depression metformin 500 mg purchase without prescription, forcing the use of lower doses of drug or decreasing the number of cycles of chemotherapeutic regimen, but also entails a considerable cost in later treatments (Menna et al. Mitochondria are an important key target in toxic mechanisms, and thus many pharmacological strategies have been studied aim ing to prevent those deleterious effects by protecting mitochondria. The excessive oxidative damage that exceeds the cellular repair capacity results in disease and abnormal functioning of the biological systems (Turrens 2003). Membrane lipid peroxidation, for instance, affects membrane fluidity, permeability, and electron transport function in mitochondria (Radi et al. Highly associ ated with cancer therapy, fatigue was reported in more than 75% of cancer patients during the course of their dis ease and treatment (Vogelzang et al. Although underestimated, fatigue was also considered as one of the most distressing complaints among cancer patients and is often a reason why many patients discontinue the treat ment (Liu et al. Among several factors including psychological conditions, sociocultural, and physiological factors, fatigue is also related with deficient energy supply and reduced efficiency of mitochondria (Ciregia et al. The treatment consists in providing high concentrations of undamaged lipids that will later replace the damaged membrane lipids and restore, or at least improve, the function of cellular structures (Nicolson 2005; Nicolson and Conklin 2008). The therapy is usually supplemented 604 Mitochondrial Dysfunction by Drug and Environmental Toxicants with antioxidants to protect lipids from oxidation and ensure a safer delivery. Considering the link between toxicity and oxi dative stress, many antioxidants have been tested in vitro and in vivo. In sensory neurons in culture, alphalipoic acid that is essential in cell energy metabolism, antioxi dant regulation, and calcium homeostasis showed to be neuroprotective against cisplatin and paclitaxelinduced peripheral neuropathy (Melli et al. Other antioxi dants such as vitamin A, vitamin E, Nacetylcysteine, or resveratrol have also been investigated, with some of them showing promising results, but others yielding some nega tive or contradictory findings (Arafa et al. Unclear data may be due to a difficult translation of experimental results into chronic cardiotoxicity treatments (Gianni et al. In an anthracyclinetreated group of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia or non Hodgkin lymphoma, coenzyme Q10 therapy was tested, and the antioxidant had a protective effect on cardiac function (Iarussi et al. In patients undergoing anthracycline therapy, carvedilol seemed to be an interesting protector of left ventricle function (Kalay et al. Although the mechanism of cardioprotection is still not completely understood, the most accepted hypothesis proposes its ability to chelate intracellular iron and to decrease free radical formation (Sterba et al. Some of these interactions are part of their therapeutic effects in cancer cells, but mitochondrial dysfunction resulting from treatment with chemotherapeutic agents also induces resistance to druginduced apoptosis in cancer cells and affects the viability of normal cells, limiting their clinical utilization. This article demonstrates that mitochondria are a critical mediator of chemotherapyinduced offtarget toxicity. The multitude of structures and pathways in, and generating from, mitochondria increases the likelihood that chemotherapy may disturb bioenergetics and/or redox balances in that organelle. Despite what is described in this chapter, and facing the evergrowing list of mitochondrial findings, it is likely that the future will yield new evidence on how chemotherapy damages mitochondria in normal tissues, and how those orga nelles can be protected, opening the way for more effec tive and safer cancer treatments. Aldieri E, Bergandi L, Riganti C, Costamagna C, Bosia A, Ghigo D (2002) Doxorubicin induces an increase of nitric oxide synthesis in rat cardiac cells that is inhibited by iron supplementation.
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Berek, 45 years: Mitofilin regulates cytochrome c release during apoptosis by controlling mitochondrial cristae remodeling.
Delazar, 31 years: Nitrogen is often a growth-limiting nutrient for many organisms; that is, their anabolism ceases because they do not have sufficient nitrogen to build proteins and nucleotides.
Gnar, 53 years: Biochemical Tests Microbiologists distinguish many prokaryotes on the basis of differences in their ability to utilize or produce certain chemicals.
Roy, 39 years: Then we discuss sources of infectious diseases of humans, how microbes enter and attach to their hosts, the nature of infectious diseases, and how microbes leave hosts to become available to enter new hosts.
Giacomo, 40 years: What effect did these claims have on the number of measles cases in subsequent years
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